Right now; our iconic marine environment is coming under more and more pressure from industry; from pollution and; increasingly; from climate change.

Changes to sea temperature and ocean acidification associated with climate change alter localised productivity and or community structures through shifts in marine species distribution.

Changes to sea temperature and ocean acidification associated with climate change may alter localised productivity and or community structures through shifts in marine species distributions. .

Changes to sea temperature and ocean acidification associated with climate change may alter localised productivity and or community structures through shifts in marine species distributions.

Changes to sea temperature and ocean acidification associated with climate change may alter localised productivity and or community structures through shifts in marine species distributions.

Changes to sea temperature and ocean acidification associated with climate change may alter localised productivity and or community structures through shifts in marine species distributions.

Changes to sea temperature and ocean acidification associated with climate change may alter localised productivity and or community structures through shifts in marine species distributions.

Changes to sea temperature and ocean acidification associated with climate change may alter community structures through shifts in marine species distributions.

Changes to sea temperature and ocean acidification associated with climate change may alter localised productivity and or community structures through shifts in marine species distributions. .

Potential pressures on crested terns include climate change; marine debris; human presence at breeding sites and introduced species in breeding areas on islands.

Pressures of potential concern on sea snakes include climate change; bycatch in commercial fisheries and physical habitat modification associated with dredging activities.

Pressures of potential concern include climate change; physical habitat modification associated with dredging and off shore construction; bycatch; marine debris; noise pollution; and chemical pollution or contaminants.

Other pressures of potential concern for the Australian snubfin; Indo Pacific bottlenose and Indo Pacific humpback dolphins are marine debris; bycatch in commercial fisheries and climate change.

Pressures of concern and of potential concern on marine turtles in and adjacent to the North Marine Region are as follows climate change (impacts to habitat including changes to sea temperature; sea level rise and associated impact on breeding locations) marine debris from a range of sources is a pressure of concern for flatback; green; hawksbill; leatherback and olive ridley turtles and is a pressure of potential concern for loggerhead turtles. extraction of living resources associated with Indigenous harvest (for flatback; green; hawksbill and olive ridley turtles) bycatch associated with commercial fishing practices (flatback; loggerhead and olive ridley turtles) noise pollution is a pressure of potential concern for all marine turtles.

In light of observed changes in breeding times in response to climate related shifts; surveys of breeding colonies can assist with verifying the presence of nesting birds.

Potential pressures on seabirds in the region include human presence at sensitive sites (e.g. breeding colonies); invasive species; climate change (changes in sea level rise; changes in sea temperature and oceanography; ocean acidification) and marine debris from a range of sources.

The North Marine Region is increasingly recognised as an area of global conservation significance for marine species and as an aggregation area and staging point for migratory birds.

The main drivers and sources of pressure on conservation values in the region are climate change and associated large scale effects; including shifts in major currents; rising sea levels; ocean acidification; and changes in the variability and extremes of climatic features (e.g. sea temperature; winds; and storm frequency and intensity) harvesting of living resources increasing industrial development in areas adjacent to the region growth in marine industries and infrastructure. .

Longer term predictions estimate increases of 0.5 m to 1.0 m by 2100; relative to 2000 levels (Climate Commission 2011).

Longer term predictions estimate increases of 0.5 m to 1.0 m by 2100; relative to 2000 levels (Climate Commission 2011).

Longer term predictions estimate increases of 0.5 m to 1.0 m by 2100; relative to 2000 levels (Climate Commission 2011).

Increases in sea temperature as a result of climate change are expected to affect all Australian seagrass habitats through impacts on their growth; distribution; abundance and survival (Campbell et al. 2006 Connolly 2009).

Modelling predicts that climate change will result in increased intensity of storms and storm surges (Connolly 2009 Hyder Consulting 2008).

Lawler et al. (2007) note that increased storm intensity is a primary way in which dugong populations might be severely affected by climate change; due to its impact on seagrass resources at the local scale.

Longer term predictions estimate increases of 0.5 m to 1.0 m by 2100; relative to 2000 levels (Climate Commission 2011).

Longer term predictions estimate increases of 0.5 m to 1.0 m by 2100; relative to 2000 levels (Climate Commission 2011).

There is little evidence that the occurrence or severity of disease in sharks has changed due to anthropogenic factors; including climate change.

Longer term predictions estimate increases of 0.5 m to 1.0 m by 2100; relative to 2000 levels (Climate Commission 2011).

Caspian tern Crested tern Lesser crested tern Little tern Roseate tern Changes in sea temperature (climate change) Common noddy Brown booby Lesser frigatebird Streaked shearwater Sea temperatures have warmed by 0.7 C between 1910 1929 and 1989 2008; and current projections estimate ocean temperatures will be 1 C warmer by 2030 (Lough 2009).

Acidification of corals is likely to alter the distribution and abundance of corals generally (Hobday et al. 2006); and atmospheric CO; levels above 500 parts per million will severely compromise coral viability (Hobday et al. 2006).

Ocean acidification may also cause changes to the composition of ecological community structures dependent on hard substrate environments; which may in turn impact on food sources for higher trophic level species.

Habitat loss will occur when the frequency and intensity of severe weather events exceed the habitat’s ability to recover from one event to the next (Chin Kyne 2007).

Increases in ocean acidification may alter prey availability and have a physiological effect on many species; although accurate calculation of impacts is not possible at present (Howard et al. 2009 Raven et al. 2005).

Episodic losses of hundreds of square kilometres of seagrass can be associated with extreme weather events such as cyclones and floods (Poiner Peterkin 1996 Preen Marsh 1995).

Ocean acidification may lead to metabolic changes in young and adult sea snakes; and changes in the availability of sea snake prey.

However; the species level impacts of ocean acidification on sea snakes remain uncertain (Hamann et al. 2007).

In addition; climate change induced sea level rise is of potential concern for Australian snubfin dolphins.

Climate change related pressures are likely to affect inshore dolphins primarily through habitat modification and prey depletion; which are likely to adversely affect dolphin breeding; feeding; migration and spatial distribution.

Sea level rise climate change Sea level rise is of potential concern for Australian snubfin dolphins.

Longer term predictions estimate increases of 0.5 1.0 metres by 2100; relative to 2000 levels (Climate Commission 2011).

Driven by increasing levels of atmospheric CO; and subsequent chemical changes in the ocean; acidification is already underway and detectible.

Ocean acidification may alter prey availability and have a physiological effect on many species (Howard et al. 2009 Raven et al. 2005).

Longer term predictions estimate increases of 0.5 to 1.0 metre by 2100; relative to 2000 levels (Climate Commission 2011).

Changes in sea temperature climate change Sea temperatures have warmed by 0.7 C between 1910 1929 ad 1989 2008; and current projections estimate ocean temperatures will be 1 C warmer by the 2030s (Lough 2009).

Ocean acidification climate change Driven by increasing levels of atmospheric Co; and subsequent chemical changes in the ocean; acidification is already underway and detectible.

Marine debris such as derelict fishing nets are an increasing global threat to marine life (Macfadyen et al. 2009) and in northern Australia have been documented to entangle sharks; cetaceans; large piscivorous fishes and turtles (Kiessling 2003).

Acidification of corals is likely to alter the distribution and abundance of corals generally (Hobday et al. 2006); and atmospheric CO; levels above 500 parts per million will severely compromise coral viability (Hobday et al. 2006).

Habitat loss will occur when the frequency and intensity of severe weather events exceed the habitat’s ability to recover from one event to the next (Chin Kyne 2007).

The pressures identified as of potential concern are considered in two groups pressures associated with habitat loss due to climate change and pressures associated with human induced mortality of dugongs.

Pressures associated with habitat loss due to climate change Climate change is predicted to adversely affect the shallow seagrass communities on which dugongs depend in the North Marine Region.

Dugong habitat loss is likely to become more widespread with climate change.

Sea level rise climate change Global sea levels have risen by 20 centimetres between 1870 and 2004 and predictions estimate a further rise of 5 15 centimetres by 2030; relative to 1990 levels (Church et al. 2009).

Longer term predictions estimate increases of 0.5 1 metres by 2100; relative to 2000 levels (Climate Commission 2011).

Changes in sea temperature climate change Waycott et al. (2007) argue that elevated temperatures will have the greatest impact on seagrasses; particularly in shallow habitats.

The likely increase in sea temperature associated with climate change is therefore considered to be of potential concern for dugongs in the North Marine Region.

Light availability at seagrass surfaces is typically significantly reduced for a period of time after extreme weather events; and deposited sediments can physically smother seagrass surfaces (Cabaco et al. 2008).

Longer term predictions estimate increases of 0.5 1.0 metre by 2100; relative to 2000 levels (Climate Commission 2011).

As with many predicted impacts associated with climate change; it is difficult to predict exactly how this pressure will affect the North Marine Region.

Changes in sea temperature climate change Changes in sea temperature are of potential concern for flatback; green; hawksbill; leatherback; loggerhead and olive ridley turtles.

Driven by increasing levels of atmospheric Co; and subsequent chemical changes in the ocean; acidification is already underway and detectible.

Sawfishes and speartooth shark have been ranked as moderately vulnerable overall to climate change; having high exposure to the effects of rising sea levels (Chin et al. 2010).

Changes in temperature driven by climate change may result in changes in metabolism; behaviour and movement patterns in elasmobranchs (Chin Kyne 2007).

Sawfishes and speartooth shark have been ranked as moderately vulnerable overall to climate change; having high exposure to the effects of rising temperatures (Chin et al. 2010).

The seven tern species (little tern; bridled tern; lesser crested tern; crested tern; caspian tern; roseate tern and black naped tern) and the brown booby are all ground nesting and; as such; are vulnerable to pressures such as human disturbance of nest sites; predation from introduced predators; and increased sea level due to climate change.

There is also evidence that arrival and departure dates for migratory species are changing and that this may be linked to changes in climate (Beaumont et al. 2006).

Longer term predictions estimate increases of 0.5 1.0 m by 2100; relative to 2000 levels (Climate Commission 2011).

In addition; the frequency and severity of El Niño Southern Oscillation events is predicted to increase with climate change (Dunlop et al. 2002).

The frequency and severity of ENSO events is predicted to increase with climate change (Dunlop et al. 2002).

Driven by increasing levels of atmospheric CO; and subsequent chemical changes in the ocean; acidification is already underway and detectable.